Pragmatic Knowledge

What is Pragmatic Knowledge?

Pragmatic Knowledge is the knowledge of different ways in which language is used in different settings and for different purposes. An example of this is how you would speak more casually with your best friend than with your best friend's parents. Characteristics of normal development relating to this aspect include, dialogic turn taking, role playing, and things are communicated in a variety of ways using different levels of pitch, loudness, and tempo as well as nonverbal behaviors.

Pragmatic Knowledge in Infants/Toddlers:

Infants' expression of communicative intent first appears in nonlinguistic forms, such as facial expression, gaze, and gesture. During later infancy, children appear to use gestures to express two types of intent. Pointing gestures are used to indicate or draw attention to an object or entity, while reaching gestures are associated with requests. Having established this shared reference, the response of the adult to the child's gesture sets up a turn-taking or communication loop. Representational/symbolic gestures are consistent actions used by a child in referring to events or objects. For example, a child might use a "sucking" action to refer to her pacifier or a dancing action to request that a radio be played. These gestures are used similarly to the way words are used- that is, a gesture is used in different contexts to refer to the same object, event, or request. It is important to remember that infants' use of gestures and the development of symbolic gestures take place in social interaction with their families and other in their environment. As with all verbal communication with young children, nonverbal communication is successful only if the people involved in the interaction are engaged in eye contact and shared reference. Social routines involving greetings and farewells and ritualized games of peek-a-boo and pat-a-cake also contribute to infants' development of pragmatic knowledge of language. As infants interact with those around them, they begin to participate in dialogic turn taking. This dialogic turn taking contributes to children's awareness of how language is used for different purposes or intents in a specific context.

When they are toddlers, children begin to respond more verbally in conversational settings and take a few turns in maintaining the interaction. Older toddlers introduce or change the topic of conversation. In addition, toddlers may use some attention-getting words and gestures. Gestures are used to increase the semantic content of what is said; however, as children's productive vocabulary increases during toddlerhood, they begin to rely less on gestures and gesture less during conversations. In literate cultures where children interact with print and texts, their behaviors may indicate that they are becoming aware of certain ways in which written language is used to communicate intent or purpose. Teachers and parents who engage in storybook sharing with both infants and toddlers provide opportunities for children to experience that way in which books communicate meaning. Storybook interactions with toddlers may continue for only a few minutes due to the limited attention span and distractability of toddlers. Toddlers' responses to print may indicate an awareness that print is different from pictures and is associated with meaning in a particular way. For example, a toddler who indicates that her wavy-line scribble says her name is indicating this awareness, as is a toddler who hums when she sees a page with music printed but talks only on a text page.

Pragmatic Knowledge in Pre-Schoolers: 

During the preschool years, children begin to use language for a wider range of purposes than they have in the past. Children begin to use language to request permission, to invoke social rules, to express emotions, and to make judgements. Language may also be used for jokes and teasing or to make an indirect request. Preschoolers gradually develop conversational competencies, increasing the number of conversational "turns" as well as a stronger topic focus. The particular way the child communicates the message and the resultant success of the message further develop the child's pragmatic knowledge of language. Throughout frequent interactions with others, children gain experience in using language differently in different settings. Dramatic play activities can provide a further look at children's developing pragmatic knowledge as they negotiate and assume various roles and communicate with each other. In assuming a specific role, a child may use a specific variation of language or register. Additional evidence of preschoolers' developing pragmatic knowledge is found in research focusing on block play and pretend telephone conversations. Research on the development of storytelling among young children provides a picture of how children develop language competency in using language to create monologues. Prior to the preschool years, children's linguistic behaviors occur in predominately dialogic interactions or short conversations with adults providing a structure or linguistic scaffolding within which the child participates. Preschoolers gradually begin to engage in monologues, or settings where they are the main speaker to a listening audience. This shift between dialogue and monologue represent's a significant change in the way language is used.

The pragmatic component of language development involves knowledge of the ways in which written language is used to communicate in different contexts. As children interact with written language in their world, inside and outside school settings, they learn how written language is used for various purposes. Pragmatic knowledge of written language builds on children's pragmatic knowledge of oral language. Children are active explorers in this process. Children's interaction with written language occur in three ways: as observers of how written language is used in their environments, as questioners of adults who are engaged in literacy-related tasks, and as active explorer-experimenters with written language. In homes where literacy-related events occur frequently, children's observation of how written language is used may begin in infancy or toddlerhood. Preschool children's curiosity about written language is evident when they see print in their environment and question their parents or teachers about it. Preschool children's early writing also provides evidence that children are learning about the different ways in which written language is shared for different purposes. Children's early explorations of writing often involve creating some writing and then giving it to an adult to be "read." Such requests indicate that the child is aware that writing has a purpose. Through preschoolers' experiences as observers and participants in shared book interactions, they develop knowledge of how written language is used in books. They gradually become aware of the left-right, top-down progression of texts. They learn how to orient a book and proceed through the book from the front to the back. They also become aware that the print, rather than the pictures, carries the real message of the story. Children with frequent storybook experiences also learn that the text is stable; they expect that what it says one day, it will say the next day. Parents and teachers often find this out when they do not read the text exactly the same way or with the same intonation during repeated readings. Their preschoolers will stop them, letting the adult reader know that what was said was not "right." Through understanding the significance of children's early explorations and experimentation in reading and writing, teachers will have a better awareness of the complex ways in which children's language knowledge is developing. Teachers can enhance children's further development by being available to answer preschoolers' questions and to welcome preschoolers' participation in literacy-related events throughout classroom activities.

Pragmatic Knowledge in Kindergarteners:

In many respects, pragmatic knowledge will determine a child's competence in communicating and in participating in various social situations. Kindergarteners use language for a wide variety of purposes. They use language to tell stories, direct peers, express pride, role-play, engage others as a resource for help or information, and gain and hold others' attention. Language may also be used indirectly to request help or regulate another's behavior. Teacher can expect to see differences between kindergarten-age children in their awareness and use of pragmatic knowledge for oral and written language. Children's pragmatic knowledge of language is influenced by not only the variety of social settings they experience but also the frequency of those opportunities and their interactions as listeners and speakers. The various social settings that children encounter during their kindergarten year can enhance acquisition of pragmatic knowledge. Children can learn how to respond during verbal interactions with their teachers and other school staff, such as the principal, assistant principal, janitors, secretaries, older children, teachers' aides, and guest speakers. Pragmatic knowledge involves not only knowing when one can speak and to whom but also the appropriate topics of conversation and cultural expectations for initiating, maintaining, and ending conversations. Kindergarten children's pragmatic knowledge of written language is evident in the different ways they use language when telling a story and when they are dictating a story for someone to write down. Children's competencies in dictating stories or narratives are another component of pragmatic knowledge. Dictated stories provide children with an opportunity to use language to share personally important events and experiences.

Children's listening and speaking competencies will influence the way they will interact with you as their teacher and with their peers. For example, does the child establish eye contact and engage in a turn-taking conversation with you as well as with other children? Does the child speak clearly? Does the child listen attentively at group time? While children's phonological awareness is related to their attempts in using written language to create stories and other writing, their understanding of the ways in which print functions in different settings and their early reading or reading-like behaviors represent further language knowledge and competencies related to school success.

Pragmatic Knowledge in Primary Age Children:

During the primary years, children may have increased opportunities to participate in a wider variety of activities and experiences. These may include opportunities to participate in sports or other extracurricular activities in the community, going on family vacations, visiting museums, and attending sporting events or religious based events. In each of these activities, there may be specific ways in which language is used in terms of vocabulary, conversational patterns, and the use of an informal dialect or home language. In addition, the curriculum present in children's school classrooms during the primary years typically places a strong emphasis on becoming more metalinguistically aware of specific features of language. During the primary years, children begin to make specific requests for clarification and become increasingly more competent in conversations. They are better able to take into account what their listeners know when engaged in conversation. They're pragmatic knowledge of how to use language in different situations can facilitate resolving conflict. This flexibility in using language differently in different situations helps them work through conflict and express themselves more clearly. Primary children are able to reflect more on their actions as well as others' actions. Due to their increased thinking skills, children are now also able to generate different ways of solving problems. Teachers can provide opportunities in the classroom for children to develop a vocabulary as well as specific communication strategies for resolving conflict and maintaing friendships. Children's awareness of the pragmatic aspects of written language is influenced by the contexts surrounding them. During the primary years, a good part of each day is spent in a school setting. The ways written language is used and the opportunities for children to participate in a wide range of contexts influence the development of children's pragmatic knowledge. Children will show this awareness when they are given opportunities at home and at school to use writing in a variety of ways. Teachers who carefully observe the ways children engage in reading and writing can use these observations and new understandings to better develop and implement curricula.

An important part of pragmatic language knowledge that is developed in the primary grades is an awareness of academic English as well as beginning to use academic English in learning contexts. Academic English involves pragmatic as well as semantic, morphemic, and syntactic features. For example, academic English is used in summarizing and making inferences when reading and interacting with hands-on materials. Academic English is also used metacognitively when children use language to plan, monitor, and evaluate their own learning. In addition, academic English is used during times when children are engaged in instructional conversations as they ask and respond to questions as well as when they interact with classmates during collaborative projects. To be a successful learner in settings where academic English is used, children need to develop an awareness of the specific ways in which academic English is used in cognitive, metacognitive, and social-affective strategies as a part of the learning process. This also includes responding to writing assignments where informational text and narrative text are assigned.

Tips for Parents:

1. One idea is that you can role play conversations. Pretend to talk to different people in different situations. For example, set up a situation (or use one that occurs during the course of a day) in which the individual has to explain the same thing to different people, such as teaching the rules of a game, or how to make a cake. Model how the person should talk to a child versus an adult, or a family member versus a friend of the family.

2. If your child responds in an incorrect way, respond to the intended message rather than correcting the pronunciation or grammar. Be sure to provide an appropriate model in your own speech. For example, if an individual says, "That's how it doesn't go," respond, "You're right. That's not how it goes."

3. Encourage the use of persuasion. For example, ask the person what he or she would say to convince family members or loved ones to let him or her do something. Discuss different ways to present a message:

• Polite ("Please may I go to the party?") versus impolite ("You better let me go")
• Indirect ("That music is loud") versus direct ("Turn off the radio")
• Discuss why some requests would be more persuasive than others